家养猫压力：行为改变和福利意义

王帆

Stress in owned cats: behavioural changes and welfare implications

家养猫压力：行为改变和福利意义

Marta Amat, Tomàs Camps and Xavier Manteca

翻译：王帆

Abstract

摘要

Domestic cats are exposed to a variety of stressful stimuli, which may have a negative effect on the cats’ welfare and trigger a number of behavioural changes. Some of the stressors most commonly encountered by cats include changes in environment, inter-cat conflict, a poor human–cat relationship and the cat’s inability to perform highly motivated behaviour patterns. Stress is very likely to reduce feed intake, and stress-related anorexia may contribute to the development of potentially serious medical conditions. Stress also increases the risk of cats showing urine marking and some forms of aggression, including redirected aggression. A number of compulsive disorders such as over-grooming may also develop as a consequence of stressful environments. Some of the main strategies to prevent or reduce stress-related behavioural problems in cats are environmental enrichment, appropriate management techniques to introduce unfamiliar cats to each other and the use of the synthetic analogue of the feline facial pheromone. As the stress response in cats depends, to a large extent, on the temperament of the animal, breeding and husbandry strategies that contribute to the cat developing a well-balanced temperament are also very useful.

家猫会受到各种各样的压力刺激，这可能会对猫的健康产生负面影响，并引发一系列行为改变。猫最常遇到的一些压力因素包括环境改变、猫与猫之间的冲突、人与猫之间糟糕的关系以及猫无法执行高度主动的行为模式。压力很可能会导致食量减少，与压力相关的厌食症可能会导致发生潜在的严重疾病。压力也会增加猫表现出排尿标记和某些攻击行为的风险，包括转向攻击行为。压力环境也会导致一些强迫症，比如过度梳理毛发。防止或减少与压力相关的猫行为问题的一些主要策略是丰富环境，适当的管理技术，让不熟悉的猫相互认识，以及使用猫面部信息素的合成类似物。由于猫对压力的反应在很大程度上取决于动物性格，育种和饲养策略也有助于猫形成一种良好平衡的性格。

Introduction

介绍

The term ‘stress’ has been widely used in biology to describe a set of physiological and behavioural changes elicited by noxious or unpleasant stimuli, with the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathoadrenomedullary system being generally considered the two main elements of the stress response.

“压力”一词在生物学中被广泛用于描述一组由有害或不愉快的刺激引起的生理和行为改变，下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺(HPA)轴和交感肾上腺髓系被普遍认为是压力反应的两个主要元素。

There is now sufficient evidence to show that it is not the physical nature of an aversive stimulus that has negative consequences on the animal but rather the degree to which the stimulus can be predicted and controlled. As a result, it has been suggested that the term ‘stress’ should be restricted to conditions where an environmental demand exceeds the regulatory capacity of the organism, in particular when such conditions include unpredictability and uncontrollability. In domestic animals, stressors can be conveniently divided into physical stressors, social stressors resulting from the interactions with individuals of the same species and stressors related to handling by humans. According to its duration, stress is classified as acute or chronic. Stressors have additive effects, which means that when several stressors impinge upon the animal at the same time, the resulting stress response will be much higher than if the animal was exposed to one stressor only.

现在有足够的证据表明，对动物产生负面影响的并不是一种反感刺激的物理性质，而是这种刺激可以被预测和控制的程度。因此，有人建议，“压力”一词应限于环境需求超过生物体调节能力的条件，特别是当这种条件包括不可预测性和不可控制性时。在家养动物中，压力因素可以很方便地分为身体压力饮食、与同类个体互动产生的社会压力因素和与人类处理相关的压力因素。根据其持续时间，压力分为急性和慢性。压力因素具有累加效应，这意味着当多种压力因素同时冲击动物时，产生的压力反应将比只暴露于一种压力因素时高得多。

Stress in companion animals is important for several reasons. Firstly, when it is intense or long lasting enough to overtax the adaptation capacity of the animal, stress has a negative effect on the welfare of the individual. Secondly, behavioural changes associated with stress can be especially annoying for owners and, as a consequence, stressrelated problems are a very common cause of relinquishment and euthanasia of dogs and cats.Additionally, it is obvious that in these cases the human– animal bond may be negatively affected. Finally, there is growing evidence to support the relationship between stress and disease, which will be discussed in this review.

伴侣动物的压力有几个重要原因。首先，当压力过大或持续时间过长，足以使动物的适应能力超负荷时，压力会对个体的福利产生负面影响。其次，与压力相关的行为改变可能会让主人特别恼火，因此，与压力相关的问题是犬猫弃养和安乐非常常见的原因。此外，很明显，在这些情况下，人与动物的关系可能会受到负面影响。最后，有越来越多的证据支持压力和疾病之间的关系，这将在这篇综述中讨论。

Several behavioural changes in cats, such as some elimination problems, aggressive behaviours or compulsive behaviours, are related to stress. In this review we will address the behavioural changes related to stress that are the most commonly seen in veterinary practice. Additionally, we will discuss the effect of stress on the health of the cat, as well as the main treatment and preventive measures.

猫的一些行为改变，如一些排泄问题、攻击行为或强迫行为，都与压力有关。在这篇综述中，我们将讨论在兽医临床中最常见的与压力相关的行为改变。此外，我们将讨论压力对猫健康的影响，以及主要的治疗和预防措施。

Temperament and stress

性格和压力

The stress response of a given cat will depend not only on the environment in which the cat lives, but also on the individual’s temperament. Temperament has been defined as individual differences in behaviour that are stable across time and across situations, and which are mainly related to the animal’s reaction to a challenge.

一只猫的压力反应不仅取决于它生活的环境，还取决于它的性格。性格被定义为个体在行为上的差异，这种差异在时间和环境中是稳定的，主要与动物对挑战的反应有关。

A cat’s temperament depends on its genetic make-up and its early experience. The effects of the cat genotype on its temperament have been revealed through studies looking at the effect of paternal temperament, breed and coat colour. It has been shown, for example, that kittens with friendly sires are friendlier towards humans (both familiar and unfamiliar) than kittens with unfriendly sires.

猫的性格取决于它的基因组成和早期经历。通过对父系性格、品种和毛色的影响进行研究，揭示了猫基因型对其性格的影响。例如，有友好的主人的小猫比不友好的主人的小猫对人类(包括熟悉的和不熟悉的)更友好。

As for the breed effect, some authors have concluded that Persian and Siamese cats are more interactive (more playful, curious and friendly) than non-pedigree cats, while others have highlighted that Bengal cats score highest in aggression towards owners and Persians score lowest in activity level. Furthermore in cats, associations between coat color and temperament have been found. Some studies have found that orange cats are more aggressive and darker cats more sociable than cats with other coat colours. Other studies, however, have failed to obtain similar results.

至于品种效应，一些作者得出结论，波斯猫和暹罗猫比非血统的猫更具互动性(更顽皮、好奇和友好)，而其他人则强调，孟加拉猫在对主人的攻击性方面得分最高，波斯猫在活动水平方面得分最低。此外，在猫的皮毛颜色和性格之间的联系已经被发现。一些研究发现，橙色的猫比其他毛色的猫更具攻击性，深色的猫比其他毛色的猫更善于交际。然而，其他研究未能获得类似的结果。

The effects of early experience on temperament have been described in several papers. For example, it has been reported that kittens reared by an experienced dam and weaned at a late age develop fewer behaviour problems (including lack of bite control and frustrationrelated aggression) than kittens weaned too early or reared by an inexperienced dam. Furthermore, kittens born to undernourished dams that usually show poor maternal behaviour are likely to develop behavioural abnormalities.

早期经验对性格的影响已经在几篇论文中描述过了。例如，据报道，由经验丰富的母猫饲养并在较晚年龄断奶的小猫比过早断奶或由经验不足的母猫饲养的小猫更少出现行为问题(包括缺乏咬伤控制和沮丧相关的攻击性)。此外，营养不良的母猫产下的小猫通常表现出较差的母性行为，可能会出现行为异常。

The socialisation period in cats begins at the age of 2 weeks, when cats are able to interact with their environment, and finishes at around 7 weeks of age. The kittens’ experiences during this period will have long-lasting effects on their development and behaviour. For example, kittens handled during this period are friendlier towards humans than non-handled kittens. Both the amount of handling and the number of handlers have an effect on the degree of friendliness towards humans. One aspect that is related to the socialisation process and that may influence the cat’s temperament is its origin. In fact, studies performed in dogs and cats suggest that animals from pet shops have a higher probability of developing behavioural problems than animals from other sources. Although the reasons for this difference are not clearly understood, it has been suggested that kittens reared in pet shops may not be exposed to many stimuli during the sensitive period.

猫的社会化期从2周开始，那时猫能够与环境互动，到7周左右结束。小猫在这一时期的经历将对它们的发育和行为产生持久的影响。例如，在这一时期被买卖的小猫比未被买卖的小猫对人类更友好。被买卖程度和被买卖数次数对人类友好程度都有影响。与社会化过程相关的一个方面可能会影响猫的性格，那就是它的起源。事实上，对犬和猫的研究表明，宠物店的动物比其他渠道的动物更有可能出现行为问题。虽然造成这种差异的原因尚不清楚，但有研究表明，在宠物店养大的小猫在敏感期可能没有受到太多刺激。

Causes of stress

压力原因

Some of the main causes of stress in cats include environmental changes, a barren environment, a poor human– cat relationship, inter-cat conflict, and lack of control and predictability.

猫压力的一些主要原因包括环境变化、环境贫瘠、人-猫关系不佳、猫与猫之间的冲突以及缺乏控制和可预测性。

Novelty may be stressful in itself and therefore changes in the physical environment of the cat, as well as the arrival of a new household member or a change in the daily routine, may all lead to stress.

新奇感本身可能会带来压力，因此猫的物理环境的变化，以及家庭新成员的到来或日常生活的改变都可能导致压力。

A barren environment that provides few opportunities to express normal behaviour may also lead to stress, and promoting the cat’s natural behaviour using enrichment strategies has been shown to reduce it. There are some species-specific behaviours that seem to be particularly relevant from an animal welfare standpoint, and enrichment strategies should mainly target such behaviours. For instance, outdoor cats spend a high proportion of their active time hunting and exploring their territory, and the inability to engage in such behaviours when cats are kept indoors (particularly in a barren environment) may result in stressrelated problems. Scratching is also a feline behaviour. It serves several functions as it has an important role in territorial communication and helps to maintain claw health.

贫瘠的环境中很少有机会表达正常行为也可能会导致压力，而使用丰容策略促进猫的自然行为已被证明可以减少压力。从动物福利的角度来看，有一些物种特有的行为似乎特别相关，而丰容策略应该主要针对这些行为。例如，户外的猫大部分的活动时间都在狩猎和探索它们的领地，而当猫被关在室内(尤其是在贫瘠的环境中)时，无法进行这些行为可能会导致与压力相关的问题。抓挠也是猫科动物的一种行为。它有几个功能，因为它在领土交流中有重要的作用，并帮助保持爪子健康。

A poor human–cat relationship is another important cause of stress. In most cases, a poor human–cat relationship is a consequence of either inappropriate socialisation or inadequate handling, such as using punishment. Owners with a lack of knowledge about cat behaviour may contribute to these problems.

人与猫关系不佳是造成压力的另一个重要原因。在大多数情况下，人与猫之间关系不佳要么是不恰当的社交行为，要么是处理不当的结果，比如使用惩罚。缺乏对猫行为了解的主人可能会导致这些问题。

Inter-cat conflict may appear as a result of several causes, including the introduction of a new cat or the reintroduction of a cat that was previously separated owing to a medical problem or other circumstances. In both cases, a territorial conflict or a defensive aggression (probably owing to the different odour of the cat) could occur. Competition for resources, such as resting places or feed bowls, may also lead to inter-cat conflict, and territorial cats tend to block access to valuable resources. In fact, on some occasions, elimination problems are a consequence of a territorial conflict as the territorial cat does not allow the other cat to access the litter box.

猫与猫之间的冲突可能是由多种原因引起的，包括引入一只新的猫或重新引入一只先前因医疗问题或其他情况而分开的猫。在这两种情况下，都可能发生领土冲突或防御性攻击(可能是因为猫的气味不同)。对资源的争夺，比如休息的地方或食碗，也可能导致猫之间的冲突，有领地意识的猫往往会阻止它们获得有价值的资源。事实上，在某些情况下，排泄问题是领土冲突的结果，因为领土猫不允许另一只猫进入猫砂盆。

One of the main psychological factors that increase the aversive dimension of a given stimulus is a perceived sense of unpredictability and lack of control. In the domestic environment, both changes in the husbandry routine and inconsistency in the owners’ reaction to the cat behaviour may cause chronic stress.

增加给定刺激的厌恶维度的主要心理因素之一是感知到的不可预测性和缺乏控制的感觉。在家庭环境中，饲养习惯的改变和主人对猫行为反应的不一致都可能导致慢性压力。

Stress and disease

压力和疾病

One of the consequences of the stress response is suppression of the immune system function and the development of a new infection or the reactivation of a previous one. For instance, it seems that stress has an important role in the reactivation of feline herpesvirus: this is a common cause of respiratory disease in cats and a frequent problem in, for example, cat colonies. According to Tanaka et al,cats with high levels of stress are almost five times more prone to develop upper respiratory tract infection than cats with lower levels of stress. Stress has been associated with several gastrointestinal problems such as diarrhoea or vomiting. It seems that stress can alter the integrity of the intestinal barrier, which will, in turn, cause an increase in its permeability and a local inflammatory reaction. Stress has an important role in the development of feline interstitial cystitis (FIC), which is the most common diagnosis in cats with feline lower urinary tract disease. Although the precise mechanism by which stress contributes to FIC is not clearly understood, it seems that the glycosaminoglycan layer of the urine bladder wall is thinner in cats with FIC than in healthy cats, and there is an increased activation of the sympathetic nervous system that causes altered bladder permeability. Cats with this recurrent disease may show dysuria and haematuria, and very often urinate outside the litter box.

压力反应的后果之一是抑制免疫系统功能和发展新的感染或激活以前的感染。例如，压力似乎在猫疱疹病毒的复活中起着重要作用:这是猫呼吸道疾病的常见原因，也是猫聚居地等地方的常见问题。根据田中等人的研究，压力大的猫患上上呼吸道感染的几率几乎是压力小的猫的五倍。压力与腹泻或呕吐等胃肠道问题有关。压力似乎会改变肠道屏障的完整性，从而导致其通透性增加和局部炎症反应。压力在猫间质性膀胱炎(FIC)的发生过程中具有重要作用，FIC是猫下泌尿道疾病最常见的诊断。虽然压力导致FIC的确切机制尚不清楚，但似乎患有FIC的猫膀胱壁的糖胺聚糖层比健康猫更薄，并且交感神经系统的激活增加导致膀胱通透性改变。患有这种复发性疾病的猫可能会出现排尿困难和血尿，并经常在猫砂喷外小便。

Furthermore, there is a clear connection between skin and nervous system.Some dermatological diseases, such as atopic dermatitis or acral lick dermatitis, can be affected by stress, which is likely to trigger or perpetuate pruritus. For instance, a negative correlation has been found in atopic patients between stress-coping skills and levels of immunoglobulin E (IgE); high levels of IgE may contribute to allergic diseases.

此外，皮肤和神经系统之间有明显的联系。一些皮肤病，如特应性皮炎或肢端舔舐性皮炎，可能会受到压力的影响，这可能会引发或持续瘙痒。例如，在特应性皮炎患者中，压力应对技能与免疫球蛋白E (IgE)水平呈负相关;高水平的IgE可能与过敏性疾病有关。

Behavioural changes caused by stress

压力导致的行为改变

Stress may cause a wide range of behavioural changes in cats (Table 1). In some cases, stress inhibits normal behaviour,and cats will hide for long periods of time, play less, reduce their exploratory behaviour and show fewer affiliative behaviours such as allorubbing or allogrooming. In these cases, owners may not be aware of the discomfort being experienced by their cat.

压力可能会导致猫的各种行为改变(表1)。在某些情况下，压力会抑制正常行为，猫会隐藏很长时间，玩得更少，减少它们的探索行为，表现出更少的亲密行为，如异相互摩擦或相互理毛。在这些情况下，主人可能没有意识到他们的猫所经历的不适。

One of the most serious stress-related behavioural changes in cats is anorexia, which may lead to potentially fatal as hepatic lipidosis. Hepatic lipidosis seems to be particularly common in overweight cats that stop eating because of a stress response. Stress-induced anorexia is mediated mainly by the release of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus. CRH influences the hypothalamic circuitry controlling appetite and food intake, and modulates the oculomotor pathways involved in the recognition and acquisition of food.

与压力相关的最严重的行为改变之一是厌食症，这可能会导致致命的肝脏脂质沉积症。肝脏脂质沉积症似乎在超重的猫中特别常见，因为压力反应而停止进食。压力性厌食症主要由下丘脑释放促肾上腺皮质激素(CRH)介导。CRH影响下丘脑控制食欲和食物摄入的回路，并调节参与食物识别和获得的动眼神经通路。

Additionally, stress seems to increase food neophobia, and therefore stress-induced anorexia is likely to be more pronounced when cats are given a new food in a stressful environment.

此外，压力似乎会增加对新食物的恐惧，因此，当猫在紧张的环境中被喂食新食物时，压力诱发的厌食症可能会更明显。

In some cases, however, stress may cause polyphagia. Indeed, the effect of stress on feed intake results from the complex interplay between a vast array of hormones and neurotransmitters, including glucocorticoids, leptin, insulin, CRH, urocortins, neuropeptide Y and melanocortin, among many others. The precise effect of the stress on food intake will depend on several factors, including the intensity of the stressor.

然而，在某些情况下，压力可能导致多食症。事实上，压力对采食量的影响是由大量激素和神经递质之间复杂的相互作用造成的，包括糖皮质激素、瘦素、胰岛素、促肾上腺皮质激素、尿皮质激素、神经肽Y和黑皮质激素等。压力对食物摄入的确切影响取决于几个因素，包括压力因素的强度。

As a consequence of stress, cats may also exhibit compulsive behaviours. Compulsive behaviours are repetitive behaviours that may arise as a consequence of a disease or when the animal is not able to adapt to the environment. Compulsive behaviours may serve as a coping mechanism when animals are exposed to stressful events. Indeed, several studies have shown a decrease in plasma glucocorticoid concentration in sows, calves and pigs with compulsive behaviours. As several medical conditions can cause these disorders, the first step in the diagnosis is to rule out such conditions by carrying out a physical and neurological examination, a complete blood cell count, biochemistry profile and urinalysis.

作为压力的结果，猫也可能表现出强迫行为。强迫行为是一种重复性行为，可能是由于疾病或动物不能适应环境而产生的结果。当动物面对压力事件时，强迫行为可能是一种应对机制。事实上，几项研究已经表明，有强迫行为的母猪、犊牛和猪的血浆糖皮质激素浓度会下降。由于有几种疾病可导致这些疾病，诊断的第一步是通过进行体格和神经系统检查、完整的血细胞计数、生物化学分析和尿液分析来排除这些疾病。

Three of the most common compulsive disorders in cats are the condition known as feline hyperesthesia syndrome (FHS), psychogenic alopecia and pica. Cats with FHS show brief bursts of unusual behaviour such as a rolling skin, intense grooming, scratching and running. Others signs are salivation, vocalisation and uncontrolled urination. FHS is more common in mature cats. Although its causes are not clearly understood, it has been suggested that both epileptic seizures and myopathies may be involved. Nevertheless, FHS could be the consequence of any situation related to stress, conflict or frustration, and has also been linked to barren environments.

猫最常见的强迫症有三种:猫感觉过敏综合征(FHS)、心因性脱毛和异食癖。患有FHS的猫会表现出短暂的不寻常行为，比如皮肤抽动、紧张地理毛、抓挠和奔跑。其他症状包括流涎、鸣叫和不自主排尿。FHS在成年猫中更常见。虽然其原因尚不清楚，但已提出，癫痫发作和肌病都可能涉及。然而，FHS可能是与压力、冲突或挫折有关的任何情况的后果，也与环境贫瘠有关。

Overgrooming disorders such as psychogenic alopecia seem to be more common in Siamese and Abyssinian cats. Usually, alopecic areas are located in the caudal part of the body, mainly on the ventral abdomen. Sometimes this behaviour is related to FIC, as the affected animals lick their abdomen in order to alleviate pain.

过度理毛，如心因性脱毛似乎在暹罗猫和阿比西尼亚猫中更常见。通常，脱毛区位于身体尾部，主要在腹侧。有时这种行为与FIC有关，因为患病动物舔舐自己的腹部以减轻疼痛。

According to the literature, pica (eg, eating of non-food items) can be considered either a compulsive disorder or a feeding disorder. Pica in cats may involve various materials such as wool, cotton, fabric, rubber or plastic. Some authors have suggested that pica could be a coping mechanism, and it may also have a genetic component, as Oriental breeds show this disorder more frequently. Additionally, it is believed that stressful events play an important role in the development of pica.

根据文献，异食癖(如吃非食物物质)可以被认为是一种强迫症或进食障碍。猫的异食癖可能涉及各种材料，如羊毛、棉花、织物、橡胶或塑料。一些作者认为异食癖可能是一种应对机制，它也可能有遗传成分，因为东方品种这种疾病发病率跟高。此外，压力事件被认为在异食癖的发展中起着重要作用。

Stress can also affect urine marking behaviour: this is a normal behaviour seen most frequently in intact males and in females in oestrus. Oftentimes, but not always, cats mark by spraying urine on vertical surfaces. Stress increases the frequency of urine marking and, in particular, cat density and the likelihood of inter-cat conflict seem to have a major effect on the frequency of this behaviour, which has an incidence of 25% in single-cat households and up to 100% in households with 10 or more cats.

压力也会影响尿液标记行为:这是一种正常行为，在未去势雄性和发情期的雌性中最常见。通常，但并非总是，猫会在垂直的表面喷洒尿液。压力增加了尿液标记的频率，尤其是猫的密度和猫间冲突的可能性似乎对这种行为的频率有重大影响，在单猫家庭中发生率为25%，在有10只或更多猫的家庭中高达100%。

The relationship between stress and aggression is bidirectional: offensive and defensive aggressions cause a stress, and the activation of the HPA axis facilitates aggressive behaviour. Redirected aggression is a fairly common type of aggression in cats and consists of the animal attacking a stimulus other than the one that elicited the aggressive motivation. Redirected aggression may serve as a coping mechanism when cats are exposed to stressful events, and some studies have observed that plasma glucocorticoid concentrations decreased after redirected attacks. Additionally, most instances of redirected aggression in cats involve a defensive posture, which adds further support to the possible link between fear (and more generally stress) and this form of aggression.

压力和攻击之间的关系是双向的:进攻性和防御性的攻击会引起压力，而下丘脑轴的激活会促进攻击行为。转向攻击行为是猫的一种相当常见的攻击类型，包括动物攻击一个刺激物而不是引起攻击动机的刺激。当猫面对压力事件时，转向攻击可能是一种应对机制，一些研究观察到，转向攻击后，血浆糖皮质激素浓度下降。此外，大多数情况下猫的转向攻击都涉及防御姿势，这进一步支持了恐惧(更普遍的是压力)和这种攻击形式之间的可能联系。

Strategies to prevent and reduce stress in cats

预防和减轻猫压力的策略

Whenever possible, the stressful stimulus should be removed. However, this is not always possible; for example, when the stressful stimulus is the other cat that lives in the same household. In these cases, exposing the cat to the stressful stimulus in a pleasant context and in a gradual manner may be very useful to progressively reduce the cat’s response (see Figure 1).

只要有可能，就应该消除压力刺激。然而，这并不总是可能的。例如，当压力刺激是住在同一个家庭的另一只猫时。在这些情况下，将猫暴露在一个愉快的环境中，以一种渐进的方式逐步减少猫的反应非常有用(见图1)。

In cases of inter-cat conflict, for example, a reintroduction protocol could be used. The protocol is divided into three phases: olfactory habituation, visual habituation and direct contact habituation. The duration of each part is variable, depending on the severity of the conflict, the cats’ response and the owner disposition. In the olfactory habituation phase, each cat is confined to a different part of the household and all important resources (including food, water, litter box and scratching post) are provided in both areas. Each cat is then moved to the other area so that both animals are exposed to the other cat’s odour. Additionally, using a piece of cloth, the secretion of the facial gland of each cat can be applied to the cheeks of the other cat. The visual habituation phase can start when both cats are relaxed during territory exchanges. In the visual habituation phase, visual contact between cats through a mesh door, for instance, is provided when cats are engaged in a pleasant activity. Cats are otherwise kept separated and the duration of the visual contact sessions is gradually increased. Finally, in the last phase of the reintroduction protocol (direct contact habituation), the wire mesh is removed.

例如，在猫与猫之间发生冲突的情况下，可以使用重新引入协议。该方案分为三个阶段:嗅觉习惯、视觉习惯和直接接触习惯。每一部分的持续时间都是可变的，取决于冲突的严重程度、猫的反应和主人的性格。在嗅觉习惯阶段，每只猫被限制在家庭的不同部分，所有重要的资源(包括食物、水、猫砂盆和猫抓板)都在这两个区域提供。然后，每只猫都被转移到另一个区域，这样两只猫都能闻到另一只猫的气味。另外，用一块布，每只猫的面部腺体的分泌物可以涂在另一只猫的脸颊上。视觉习惯阶段可以从两只猫在领土交换过程中放松开始。在视觉习惯阶段，例如，当猫从事一项愉快的活动时，猫之间通过网门进行视觉接触。否则，猫会被分开，视觉接触的时间会逐渐增加。最后，在再引入方案的最后阶段(直接接触习惯化)，去除钢丝网。

Environmental enrichment is a technique used to reduce stress and improve welfare by increasing the physical, social and temporal complexity of the environment. It is not a static change, so should change over time. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that sudden changes can cause additional stress and therefore all changes should be made in a very progressive way. The main features of an environmental enrichment programme for cats include the following:

• Provision of a safe area where the cat feels comfortable and has all the important resources. Potential stressors such as other cats or dogs should be prevented from entering the safe area.

• As cats spend a high percentage of time foraging, providing puzzle feeders and hiding food in several places may be very useful. Mainly in indoor cats, toys should be used and changed at regular intervals to keep the cat’s interest. Toys that simulate small, moving catchable prey are particularly useful.

• Providing a vertical or a three-dimensional space (eg, shelves, cat trees or platforms) should be encouraged, as cats use vertical space as a vantage point and as a hiding area. In fact, some studies have suggested that providing hiding places reduces stress.

• The litter tray, the resting area and the feed bowl should be kept separate.

• There is some evidence to suggest that cats are strongly motivated to scratch; therefore, providing a suitable substrate for scratching is an important enrichment strategy.

环境丰容是一种通过增加环境的物理、社会和时间复杂性来减少压力和改善福利的技术。它不是一个静态的变化，所以应该随着时间的推移而变化。然而，重要的是要记住，突然的变化会导致额外的压力，因此所有的变化都应该以一种非常渐进的方式进行。改善猫的环境计划的主要特点包括:

•为猫咪提供一个安全的地方，让它感到舒适，并拥有所有重要的资源。潜在的压力源，如其他猫或犬，应防止进入安全区域。

•由于猫花费大量的时间觅食，所以提供喂食器和把食物藏在几个地方可能非常有用。以室内猫咪为主，要定期使用和更换玩具，保持猫咪的兴趣。模拟可捕捉的移动小猎物的玩具特别有用。

•应鼓励提供垂直或三维空间(如爬架、猫树或平台)，因为猫会把垂直空间作为有利位置和藏身之处。事实上，一些研究表明，提供藏身之处可以减轻压力。

•猫砂盆、休息区域和食盆应保持分开。

•有一些证据表明，猫抓东西的动机很强烈，因此，提供合适的猫抓板是一种重要的丰容策略。

In multi-cat households, an adequate distribution of resources to avoid conflict is essential, and this should include the feed and water bowls, resting areas and litter trays. This is even more important when one cat tries to prevent the other cats from accessing a particular resource. The number of litter boxes will depend on the number of cats, and there should be at least the same number of litter boxes as cats that live in the house, and they should be located in different locations and be easily accessible (particularly when there are geriatric cats).

在养多只猫的家庭中，合理分配资源以避免冲突是至关重要的，这应该包括食盆和水盆、休息区域和猫砂盆。当一只猫试图阻止其他猫访问某一特定资源时，这一点就更加重要了。猫砂盆的数量取决于猫的数量，猫砂盆的数量至少应该与住在家里的猫的数量相同，它们应该位于不同的位置，容易接近(特别是当有老年猫的时候)。

Although restricted feeding could sometimes be recommended (particularly in obese cats), it may cause stress; therefore, ad libitum feeding is probably better on welfare grounds associated with other practices to reduce obesity (eg, measures to increase activity, such as periods of play). Particularly when FIC is suspected, it is also very important to encourage cats to drink enough water in order to dilute the urine. Both water fountains and water bowls that are big enough so that the cat’s vibrissae do not touch the sides of the bowl are potentially useful.

虽然有时可以建议限制喂食(特别是对肥胖的猫)，但它可能会造成压力。因此，从福利角度考虑，自由进食结合其他减肥的方法一起可能更好(例如，增加活动的措施，如玩耍的时间)。特别是当怀疑有FIC时，鼓励猫喝足够多的水来稀释尿液也是非常重要的。如果饮水机和水盆足够大，猫咪的触须就不会碰到碗的边缘，那么它们都有可能发挥作用。

As we have highlighted that stress and temperament are related, it is very important that during the sensitive period kittens have contact with all the stimuli they are likely to encounter later on in life; otherwise, they are likely to react with either a negative emotional state such as fear or an inappropriate behaviour such as aggression. These interactions between the cat and the stimuli should be positive; otherwise, the negative response of the cat towards them will increase.

正如我们强调的，压力和性格是相关的，在敏感期，小猫接触到它们在以后的生活中可能遇到的所有刺激是非常重要的。否则，他们可能会以消极的情绪状态(如恐惧)或不恰当的行为(如攻击)做出反应。猫和刺激物之间的互动应该是积极的;否则，猫对它们的负面反应就会增加。

Punishment by owners should be completely avoided. Daily routines (eg, play time, feed schedule, owner schedule) and interactions with the owners should be predictable, thus reducing the chronic stress associated with unpredictability. Further, cats should always have control of their surroundings, which is particularly important in cats experiencing stress. This can be achieved by providing them with safe areas as previously described.

应该完全避免宠主的惩罚。日常生活(如玩耍时间、喂食时间、主人行动)和与主人的互动应该是可预测的，从而减少与不可预测性相关的慢性压力。此外，猫应该总是控制它们周围的环境，这在猫经历压力时尤为重要。这可以通过向他们提供上文所述的安全区来实现。

A discussion of the pharmacological strategies that can be used to treat stress-related problems is beyond the scope of this review. However, it is important to note that administering a drug may be an additional source of stress. Therefore, one important aspect to be considered is the frequency of drug administration. For example, in cases of stress-induced anorexia, benzodiazepines have been widely recommended as appetite stimulants in cats. However, some of them, particularly diazepam, can cause hepatic necrosis, even after a short treatment. A safer option is mirtazapine, a tetracyclic antidepressant with noradrenergic and serotonergic activity, which has been used in cats with chronic kidney disease owing to its antiemetic and appetite stimulant properties. One of the advantages of this drug is its fast onset of action and its dosage, as it has to be administered every 3 days.

关于可以用于治疗压力相关问题的药理治疗的讨论超出了这篇综述的范围。然而，重要的是要注意，药物管理可能是一个额外的压力来源。因此，需要考虑的一个重要方面是给药的频率。例如，在压力性厌食症的案例中，苯二氮卓类药物被广泛推荐作为猫的食欲刺激剂。然而，有些药物，特别是地西泮，即使是短时间的治疗，也会导致肝坏死。更安全的选择是米氮平，这是一种四环抗抑郁药，具有去甲肾上腺素能和血清素能活性，由于其止吐和促进食欲的特性，它已被用于患有慢性肾病的猫。这种药的优点之一是起效快，而且剂量是每3天给一次药。

A potentially very useful treatment and prevention strategy for stress-related problems is the synthetic analogue of the feline facial pheromone (Feliway; Ceva Animal Health). This pheromone has been shown to facilitate cats’ habituation to new environments and is therefore useful in hospitalised cats, and when cats are transported or moved to a new home. The pheromone also reduces non-sexual urine spraying and compulsive disorders. Depending on the situation, Feliway can be used as a spray or as a diffuser, and can be combined with other anxiolytic products.

对于与压力相关的问题，一种潜在的非常有用的治疗和预防策略是合成猫面部信息素(费力威)。这种信息素已被证明有助于猫对新环境的习惯，因此在住院的猫和猫被运送或搬到新家时很有用。信息素还能减少非性行为的喷尿和强迫症。根据具体情况，费力威可以作为喷雾或扩散剂使用，也可以与其他抗焦虑产品结合使用。

Recently, both nutritional supplements and aromatherapy have gained popularity in treating or preventing stress-related problems. Although more research is clearly needed in this area, there is some evidence to show that alpha-casozepine, which is a gamma-aminobutyric acid agonist, reduces anxiety in number of species, including the domestic cat. As for aromatherapy, it seems that lavender essential oil has calming effects in cats.

最近，营养补充剂和芳香疗法在治疗或预防与压力有关的问题方面越来越受欢迎。虽然在这一领域显然还需要更多的研究，但有一些证据表明α-casozepine(一种γ -氨基丁酸激动剂)可以减少包括家猫在内的物种的焦虑。至于芳香疗法，似乎薰衣草精油对猫有镇静作用。

Conclusions

结论

Stress-related problems such as behavioural changes and some diseases have a strong negative impact on cat welfare. The main causes of stress include a barren or unpredictable environment, as well as conflicts with other cats. Strategies to reduce or prevent stress should aim at improving the environment of the cat or reduce inter-cat conflict.

与压力相关的问题，如行为改变和一些疾病对猫的福利有强烈的负面影响。压力的主要原因包括环境贫瘠或不可预测，以及与其他猫的冲突。减少或预防压力的策略应该以改善猫的生存环境或减少猫与猫之间的冲突为目标。

Table 1 Main behavioural changes caused by stress (adapted from Rochlitz70 and Amat et al27)

表1主要由压力导致的行为改变

陈久久

笼中红细胞

zhangenzyme

Gank

南海

Vet武

lk0340530121

句句

学习了，感谢楼主

Ryohei